Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective of the world, through individual experiences and schema. Constructivism focuses on preparing the learner to problem solve in ambiguous situations.
(Schuman, 1996) after Mergel
Two common threads of constructivism:
Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge
Instruction is a process of supporting that construction rather than communicating knowledge
Constructivism rarely leads to one unified approach, a myriad of views and interpretations take manifold approaches to practice. Von Glasserfeld, (1997) describes it as "a vast and woolly area in contemporary psychology, epistemology, and education" (p. 204).
Phillips (1997) says, “One thing is clear: ‘Constructivism’ is the label or name given to a broad position that has now attained the status of political correctness; it is a position widely espoused in the contemporary educational research literature, and as early as the beginning of this decade five hundred articles with constructivist ideas as a focus were found” (p. 152).
At least three variants of constructivism can be inferred from the current literature. Constructivism is viewed:
- as a perspective on individual development (often referred to as psychological constructivists [Phillips, 1995, 1997]; developmental constructivism and cognitive constructivism; Piaget, 1972),
- as a perspective on social transformation (often referred to as social constructivism;
Vygotsky, 1978; Vygotsky, 1986), and
- as a perspective on emancipation (referred to variously as sociological, socio-cultural, socio-historical, or emancipatory constructivism; Counts, 1932; O'Loughlin, 1992).
(2006) pg 8
"Emancipatory constructivism is based on Vygotsky's complete multilevel methodology: therefore, all four levels of development -- micro genesis, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, and cultural and historical development -- are analyzed together and in relation to each other" (Vadeboncoeur, 1977, p. 29). The approach values behaviours, qualities, and characteristics that reflect the culture and, at the same time, evaluates the impact of power and privilege on cognitive forms. This approach ventures further away than either of the others from biological determinism toward cultural determinism. Emancipatory constructivism values the role of reflection, critical thinking, and social discourse in exposing relationships of exploitation and oppression, both of the individual and of ways of thinking. Learners are encouraged to explore and understand their own situation and their own participation in maintaining or overturning power relationships. Emancipatory constructivism values inclusiveness of many voices in knowledge construction and devalues the transmission model of pedagogy (Vadeboncoeur, 1977). In this approach, formal knowledge is dissected and inspected. The approach views formal knowledge not as an educational end, but as an educational tool that is useful in guiding social discourse toward shared understanding (Richardson, 1997). Scepticism is a fundamental tenet, and learners are encouraged to question and explore. Of the three variants of constructivism described here, this one is most consistent with the existential, post-modern view, suggesting that there is no single objective Truth that can be discovered through reason. (See also Bereiter, 1994b; Cobb, 1994; Cobb & Yorkel, 1996; Confrey, 1995.)
(2006) pg 10
Duffy and Cunningham (1996: 171) view the dual premises of cognitive constructivism and socio-cultural constructivism as two contradictory views. Preferring then to focus on elements that allows for a cognitive approach to instructional design as their framework for problem-based learning displays:
Processes are applied to a problem (the problem being the stimulus for authentic activity)
Task analysis
Problem generation from syllabus content
The learning sequence of collaborative and self-directed learning
The definition of the facilitator’s role as challenger
The assessment grounded in the context of the problem
(after Laurillard 2003: 67)
July 23, 2007
Notes: Instructional Design
Instructional design is seen as the analysis of learning needs and accompanying systematic development of instruction. Closely evolving out of a stimulus and response situation, akin to that found in behaviourist experiments, learning or instructional tasks were broken down into merit worthy instances – allowing for a perform and reward event.
Robert Gagne (1962) a key proponent of instructional design, provides a theoretical framework with which to consider how individuals learn. He identifies five levels of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. With these in mind instructional designers may act upon each and provide suitable stimuli that enables the learner to interact and demonstrate a fundamental attaining of each level. Gagne’s (1985) 9 steps of instructional design, firmly based on a behaviourist stance, offers the learner a means of self actualisation by engaging in a hierarchical process of knowledge building. It is interesting to note the amount of debate that has occurred (Resnick & Resnick 1991) as to the validity of this sequential approach to knowledge acquisition, an approach that offers (for an instructional designer) the ideal opportunity to customise and personalise a learning environment on behalf of the end user.
Papert’s experiments with rudimentary programming allowing children to dictate the movement of a simulated ‘turtle’ (Harvey) achieving reward based on performance, this supported Piaget’s hypothesis that young children were adept at ‘processing concrete and operational data’ and only in time would they be capable of abstract and reflective processes. This move to such an empirical and scientific stance is also noted in the way Gagné own analysis shifted from a purely behavioural psychology led methodology to utilising more effectively the information-processing theory with the onset of computing in the early 70’s (Laurillard 2003: 64).
Description of ‘Human capabilities that are learned’ e.g. intellectual skills, cognitive strategies verbal information etc. these equate to the possible desired outcomes.
Followed by description of ‘Learning events’ for each of the former.
Combined these allow for the creation of the internal (mental) and external (situational) conditions for learning to be put in place.
Laurillard notes the complete list of instructional events to be carried out by a teacher are:
Activating motivation
Informing learner of the objective
Directing attention
Stimulating recall
Providing learner guidance
Enhancing retention
Promoting transfer of learning
Eliciting performance
Providing feedback
"Nine Events of Instruction".
Gain attention
Inform learner of objectives
Stimulate recall of prior learning
Present stimulus material
Provide learner guidance
Elicit performance
Provide feedback
Assess performance
Enhance retention transfer
Gagné and Merrill develop this concept to account for multiple objectives and the ensuing relationships between these by suggesting an approach in which one would add ‘integrative goals’. These are employed across the cognitive space by ‘enterprise schemas’, it is their responsibility to provide a foci for the integrative goals and in turn offer the potential for a development of a more finely tuned holistic deployment of actual student interactions.
Robert Gagne (1962) a key proponent of instructional design, provides a theoretical framework with which to consider how individuals learn. He identifies five levels of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. With these in mind instructional designers may act upon each and provide suitable stimuli that enables the learner to interact and demonstrate a fundamental attaining of each level. Gagne’s (1985) 9 steps of instructional design, firmly based on a behaviourist stance, offers the learner a means of self actualisation by engaging in a hierarchical process of knowledge building. It is interesting to note the amount of debate that has occurred (Resnick & Resnick 1991) as to the validity of this sequential approach to knowledge acquisition, an approach that offers (for an instructional designer) the ideal opportunity to customise and personalise a learning environment on behalf of the end user.
Papert’s experiments with rudimentary programming allowing children to dictate the movement of a simulated ‘turtle’ (Harvey) achieving reward based on performance, this supported Piaget’s hypothesis that young children were adept at ‘processing concrete and operational data’ and only in time would they be capable of abstract and reflective processes. This move to such an empirical and scientific stance is also noted in the way Gagné own analysis shifted from a purely behavioural psychology led methodology to utilising more effectively the information-processing theory with the onset of computing in the early 70’s (Laurillard 2003: 64).
Description of ‘Human capabilities that are learned’ e.g. intellectual skills, cognitive strategies verbal information etc. these equate to the possible desired outcomes.
Followed by description of ‘Learning events’ for each of the former.
Combined these allow for the creation of the internal (mental) and external (situational) conditions for learning to be put in place.
Laurillard notes the complete list of instructional events to be carried out by a teacher are:
Activating motivation
Informing learner of the objective
Directing attention
Stimulating recall
Providing learner guidance
Enhancing retention
Promoting transfer of learning
Eliciting performance
Providing feedback
"Nine Events of Instruction".
Gain attention
Inform learner of objectives
Stimulate recall of prior learning
Present stimulus material
Provide learner guidance
Elicit performance
Provide feedback
Assess performance
Enhance retention transfer
Gagné and Merrill develop this concept to account for multiple objectives and the ensuing relationships between these by suggesting an approach in which one would add ‘integrative goals’. These are employed across the cognitive space by ‘enterprise schemas’, it is their responsibility to provide a foci for the integrative goals and in turn offer the potential for a development of a more finely tuned holistic deployment of actual student interactions.
Notes: Cognitivism
Developed as an anathema to the behaviourist models, in truth it is a development of kinds to the former, but expressing a key change in the belief of the existence of internal mental states. Chomsky argued in his theory on universal grammar (Chomsky, 1969) that language could not be acquired purely through conditioning as espoused by the behaviourists and argued for the presence of internal mental states / representations that are inherent to the individual as a ‘genetic linguistic endowment.’ Methodologically cognitivism applies a scientific approach that favours explanation by use of experimentation and measurement, changes in behaviour may be observed, and used as indicators as to what is happening inside a learner's mind.
Some of the key concepts are worth mentioning as they may impact on future discussion with regard to the implementation of educational technology. The concept of a pre-ordained or genetically embedded ‘Schema’ is fundamental to the theory. The affirmation of existing knowledge (representations or internal mental states) allows an individual to use this as a point of reference from which to compare, contrast, adapt, develop, combine and extend the inherent data set.
The model of ‘Three Stage info processing’ adheres to the scientific methodology to account for access, acquiring computation of new data. The first phase the Sensory Register merely accounts for transitory data that is acted upon only if necessary. Phase two Short Term Memory, enables an individual to hold data referred by the sensory register for longer periods of time, and may in fact be held over if appropriately ‘chunked’ or tagged as meaningful to that individual. The final phase Long Term Memory takes over from STM when necessary and in effect appears to be of limitless capacity. Information here may be then cross referenced and linked to previous data or schema to embed into LTM an enable better recall and retention.
Social cognitivism theory implies that individuals learn by observing others and that their behaviour is self directed, Bandura’s work on social learning theory is the most cited work in this realm and is often connected with criminological studies after his seminal paper involving the now infamous Bobo Doll (Bandura, 1692). Bandura believed that aggression was learned through a process called behaviour modelling, and went further claiming that it may be reinforced by the media, family and the environment.
Some of the key concepts are worth mentioning as they may impact on future discussion with regard to the implementation of educational technology. The concept of a pre-ordained or genetically embedded ‘Schema’ is fundamental to the theory. The affirmation of existing knowledge (representations or internal mental states) allows an individual to use this as a point of reference from which to compare, contrast, adapt, develop, combine and extend the inherent data set.
The model of ‘Three Stage info processing’ adheres to the scientific methodology to account for access, acquiring computation of new data. The first phase the Sensory Register merely accounts for transitory data that is acted upon only if necessary. Phase two Short Term Memory, enables an individual to hold data referred by the sensory register for longer periods of time, and may in fact be held over if appropriately ‘chunked’ or tagged as meaningful to that individual. The final phase Long Term Memory takes over from STM when necessary and in effect appears to be of limitless capacity. Information here may be then cross referenced and linked to previous data or schema to embed into LTM an enable better recall and retention.
Social cognitivism theory implies that individuals learn by observing others and that their behaviour is self directed, Bandura’s work on social learning theory is the most cited work in this realm and is often connected with criminological studies after his seminal paper involving the now infamous Bobo Doll (Bandura, 1692). Bandura believed that aggression was learned through a process called behaviour modelling, and went further claiming that it may be reinforced by the media, family and the environment.
Notes: Behaviourism
Behaviourism is best described as an approach whereby all behaviour can be both studied and explained in a scientific manner without reference to the internal mental states that may exist within an individual being.
“Behaviourism, the doctrine, is committed in its fullest and most complete sense to the truth of the following three sets of claims.
1. Psychology is the science of behaviour. Psychology is not the science of mind.
2. Behaviour can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to internal psychological processes. The sources of behaviour are external (in the environment), not internal (in the mind).
3. In the course of theory development in psychology, if, somehow, mental terms or concepts are deployed in describing or explaining behaviour, then either (a) these terms or concepts should be eliminated and replaced by behavioural terms or (b) they can and should be translated or paraphrased into behavioural concepts.
The three sets of claims are logically distinct. Moreover, taken independently, each helps to form a type of behaviourism. “Methodological” behaviourism is committed to the truth of (1). “Psychological” behaviourism is committed to the truth of (2). “Analytical” behaviourism (also known as “philosophical” or “logical” behaviourism) is committed to the truth of the sub-statement in (3) that mental terms or concepts can and should be translated into behavioural concepts.
Based on observable changes in behaviour. Behaviourism focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.”
(Graham, Fall 2005 Edition)
Stimulus – response pattern
Pavlov, Thorndike (connectionism – learning the formation of connection between stimulus and response), Watson (rat boy!), Skinner (operant conditioning – stimulus in environment rather than reflexive. Concept of reinforcement schedules)
“Behaviourism, the doctrine, is committed in its fullest and most complete sense to the truth of the following three sets of claims.
1. Psychology is the science of behaviour. Psychology is not the science of mind.
2. Behaviour can be described and explained without making reference to mental events or to internal psychological processes. The sources of behaviour are external (in the environment), not internal (in the mind).
3. In the course of theory development in psychology, if, somehow, mental terms or concepts are deployed in describing or explaining behaviour, then either (a) these terms or concepts should be eliminated and replaced by behavioural terms or (b) they can and should be translated or paraphrased into behavioural concepts.
The three sets of claims are logically distinct. Moreover, taken independently, each helps to form a type of behaviourism. “Methodological” behaviourism is committed to the truth of (1). “Psychological” behaviourism is committed to the truth of (2). “Analytical” behaviourism (also known as “philosophical” or “logical” behaviourism) is committed to the truth of the sub-statement in (3) that mental terms or concepts can and should be translated into behavioural concepts.
Based on observable changes in behaviour. Behaviourism focuses on a new behavioural pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.”
(Graham, Fall 2005 Edition)
Stimulus – response pattern
Pavlov, Thorndike (connectionism – learning the formation of connection between stimulus and response), Watson (rat boy!), Skinner (operant conditioning – stimulus in environment rather than reflexive. Concept of reinforcement schedules)
Musings: Educational Theories and there place: Impact and design
In current academic practice we are able to adapt and utilise a vast array of theory and practical expertise to enable us to engage with the learner. An almost knowingly eclectic theoretical methodology is taken to achieve a practical solution with regard to teaching and learning. Choosing elements of Behaviourism, Instructional Design, Constructivism (and its variants ), Cognitivism, to purpose a module or programme. This does even begin to touch upon actual instances of practical methodologies in use; problem-based or inquiry led learning, co-operative learning, discussion based scenarios, case study work, simple ‘active’ engagement etc. It is a relative rarity to find a particular programme embracing and proclaiming a certain theoretical ethos as its mandate, however one would acknowledge that constructivism is the current vogue, and is perceptible in many a programme design, whether this was an explicit rationale may be another matter altogether. Though many academics espouse a certain way of practice, not all would be fully cogniscent of the intricacies of any given theoretical slant. With the advent of educational technologies many individuals have surreptiously signed up to a variety of theoretical leanings and practices unwittingly. The use of the virtual learning environment Moodle being one case in particular, this application is firmly set in a socio-constructivist frameset that allows for individuals to work within such parameters. Facilitators provide content and resources in a structure that engenders the social development and interaction of individuals, in so doing initial navigability of the system (finding the resources within) may take some time to familiarise one self with. Other VLE vendors have applied key instructional design principals to aid in the design and implementation of their packages, often assuming that a particular ‘route’ of learning will be taken on behalf of the end-user, these sometimes end up as effective ‘training tools’ but lacking some what in providing a sense of knowledge exploration and collaborative endeavour.
Musings: E-learning realities
The fundamental nature of education has scarcely changed over the last number of decades to any great degree, what has occurred however is a realisation of the shear amount of technical possibilities apparent to our everyday teaching and learning needs. This reality has been brought to the fore by talk of the ‘Net Generation’ entering our schools and universities. Where once we thought of students as ‘Play-Station’ aficionados looking for more and more ‘quick fixes’ in their learning processes – we even attempted to account for such a vague predilection by talking of ‘chunking’ information into bite-size elements in an attempt to cater for their ‘limited attention’ spans. The term the Net Generation brings a rather more mature concept, it includes an outlook akin to many of the socio influenced theories that pervade our teaching in line with an innate sense and ability to integrate current technologies into every day existence.
It is this seamlessness, of technology and purpose, that has evaded education, in the majority, when implementing e-learning. In what may appear a circular argument this chapter will aim to introduce the current practices with regard to technology in learning (we will talk in more detail about the terminology of ‘technology in learning’ below), it will point to an initial well meaning, but misguided attempt to integrate technical solutions into education, that failed (and is failing) to make the most of the available solutions – simply because it was the technology that implicitly led the way in which implementations were sourced and created.
The theoretical frameworks that are used in current practice derive from a myriad of psychological and sociological ideologies that are explicit in ‘traditional’ teaching and have been re-purposed (like an ideal re-usable e-resource) for the educational community to ‘pad’ the rationale of use in the practice of e-learning. We will examine the hereditary of these theories and attempt to map a taxonomy of development that accounts for present day practices.
The core argument of this chapter revolves around the issue that it is now time to make the technology explicit in practice and empower the teacher and learner in a way that reflects the needs of our ‘information and knowledge society’ in the way we utilise both technology and information seamlessly – as an integrated whole that serves the purpose of life-long learning.
In the current educational vogue we purport to offer accountability, from the educator, the learner, the institute and its wider geo-political contexts – such as Europe’s Bologna agreement.
Before we begin let us take a perambulation into the term of e-learning. A legal case taken by one of the larger virtual learning environment (VLE) vendors is proving quite contentious... Blackboard Vs Desire2Learn.
E-learning is an often used and perhaps misplaced term. Invariably it stands for one of two things: electronic learning or (the more politically correct) enhanced learning. From this we might assume that as learning implies the ‘act of or experience of one that learns’ then it must be so via electronic means for the term e-learning.
What systems are in place for the novice academic, the old hand and the individual aiming to up skill or simply integrate some minor technological features into their traditional teaching.
Much had been made of the need for inductions to technology on campus, increasing support and training for new tools and the ability of institutions to offer a strategically aligned top down approach to the integration of such technologies across the campus. Rather large sums of money have been spent on purchasing proprietary packages or even writing and creating software solutions in house to enable some formal deployment of e-learning or technology enhanced learning.
It is this seamlessness, of technology and purpose, that has evaded education, in the majority, when implementing e-learning. In what may appear a circular argument this chapter will aim to introduce the current practices with regard to technology in learning (we will talk in more detail about the terminology of ‘technology in learning’ below), it will point to an initial well meaning, but misguided attempt to integrate technical solutions into education, that failed (and is failing) to make the most of the available solutions – simply because it was the technology that implicitly led the way in which implementations were sourced and created.
The theoretical frameworks that are used in current practice derive from a myriad of psychological and sociological ideologies that are explicit in ‘traditional’ teaching and have been re-purposed (like an ideal re-usable e-resource) for the educational community to ‘pad’ the rationale of use in the practice of e-learning. We will examine the hereditary of these theories and attempt to map a taxonomy of development that accounts for present day practices.
The core argument of this chapter revolves around the issue that it is now time to make the technology explicit in practice and empower the teacher and learner in a way that reflects the needs of our ‘information and knowledge society’ in the way we utilise both technology and information seamlessly – as an integrated whole that serves the purpose of life-long learning.
In the current educational vogue we purport to offer accountability, from the educator, the learner, the institute and its wider geo-political contexts – such as Europe’s Bologna agreement.
Before we begin let us take a perambulation into the term of e-learning. A legal case taken by one of the larger virtual learning environment (VLE) vendors is proving quite contentious... Blackboard Vs Desire2Learn.
E-learning is an often used and perhaps misplaced term. Invariably it stands for one of two things: electronic learning or (the more politically correct) enhanced learning. From this we might assume that as learning implies the ‘act of or experience of one that learns’ then it must be so via electronic means for the term e-learning.
What systems are in place for the novice academic, the old hand and the individual aiming to up skill or simply integrate some minor technological features into their traditional teaching.
Much had been made of the need for inductions to technology on campus, increasing support and training for new tools and the ability of institutions to offer a strategically aligned top down approach to the integration of such technologies across the campus. Rather large sums of money have been spent on purchasing proprietary packages or even writing and creating software solutions in house to enable some formal deployment of e-learning or technology enhanced learning.
Publications
Reusable Learning Object Development Guidelines and Initiatives. White Paper. David Jennings & Catherine Bruen for the National Digital Learning Repository (http://www.learningcontent.edu.ie/)
A Problem and an Opportunity: E-Learning a case for collaboration, Chapter. David Jennings in Savin-Baden M. and Wilkie K (Eds) (2006) Virtually possible? Using Problem-based Learning Online
“E-Learning A Medium For Collaboration: A Case Study Of Shared Cognitive Development” Paper. IADIS International Conference Proceedings, On Cognition And Exploratory Learning In Digital Age (Celda 2005)
Virtually Effective: The Measure Of A Learning Environment, Chapter. David Jennings in
O’Neill, G., Moore, S. and McMullin, B. (Eds.) (2005) Emerging Issues in the Practice of University Learning and Teaching. Dublin: AISHE.
‘Virtually Effective.’ Article. October 2004 Prelimimary Paper in BbMatters http://www.bbmatters.net/bbmattersproject/default.asp
A Problem and an Opportunity: E-Learning a case for collaboration, Chapter. David Jennings in Savin-Baden M. and Wilkie K (Eds) (2006) Virtually possible? Using Problem-based Learning Online
“E-Learning A Medium For Collaboration: A Case Study Of Shared Cognitive Development” Paper. IADIS International Conference Proceedings, On Cognition And Exploratory Learning In Digital Age (Celda 2005)
Virtually Effective: The Measure Of A Learning Environment, Chapter. David Jennings in
O’Neill, G., Moore, S. and McMullin, B. (Eds.) (2005) Emerging Issues in the Practice of University Learning and Teaching. Dublin: AISHE.
‘Virtually Effective.’ Article. October 2004 Prelimimary Paper in BbMatters http://www.bbmatters.net/bbmattersproject/default.asp
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